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The solar energy is the energy that comes from solar radiation directly through the atmosphere .
On Earth , solar energy is the source of the water cycle , the wind and the photosynthesis performed by the plant kingdom , to which the animal through the food chain . Solar energy is the source of all energy on locksmiths Earth with Judaica Bat Mitzvah Gifts the exception of nuclear energy , the geothermal and the tidal energy .
The man uses solar energy to convert it into other forms of energy: food energy , kinetic energy , thermal energy , electrical energy or biomass energy . By extension, the term “solar energy” is often used to describe electricity and thermal energy obtained from the latter.
In the space , the energy of photons can be used, for example to propel a solar sail .

The solar resource

A heliostat for solar THEMIS
Solar power plant in California (Kramer Junction)
Articles: solar radiation , solar constant and Earth’s radiation budget .
Solar energy comes from nuclear fusion that occurs in the middle of the Sun . It spreads in the solar system and the universe as an electromagnetic radiation – from photons .
The solar energy received in one part of the world depends on:
solar energy sent by the Sun (decadal fluctuations, seasonal, and timely).
cloudiness ( clouds , fog, etc..), which is important at the equator and lower in rural intertropical.
the latitude , the season and time, affecting the height of the sun and thus the energy per unit surface area, as well as cloud cover based on the local climate.
Overall the earth receives a continuous power of 170 million giga watt , absorbing 122 and reflects the rest. The energy absorbed over a full year is 3850 zetta joules (10 21 joules, ZJ), by comparison, photosynthesis captures 3 ZJ 1 , the wind contains 2.2 ZJ 2 , and all human uses of energy, ZJ 0.5 3 0.06 ZJ which form of electricity 4
Desert areas, where cloud cover is low and that are located in latitudes near the equator are most favorable to solar energy. Those that are relatively close to major consumption areas in developed countries with sophisticated technology required to capture solar energy achievements are increasingly important as the Mojave Desert (California) where a solar d a total capacity of 354 MW 5 .
Techniques Storage Bins to capture solar energy

The techniques used to capture direct part of this energy are available and are constantly improved. One can distinguish between passive solar , the solar photovoltaic and solar thermal ski accessories :
Passive solar energy
Main article: Solar passive .
The oldest and certainly the most important, though discreet use of solar energy is to take advantage of the direct solar radiation, that is to say, the passive solar energy . For a building to receive the best sunlight, you should consider solar energy in building design (facades are double glazed area facing south etc.).. The thermal insulation is important to maximize mining jobs the proportion of passive solar gain in the heating and lighting of a building.
In a passive solar house , passive solar gain can make significant Bankruptcy energy savings.
In buildings whose design is said to be bioclimatic , the passive solar heating also allows all or part of a building for a proportionate cost almost zero.
Solar Thermal
The solar oven Odeillo
Main article: Solar thermal .
Solar thermal energy is to use heat from solar radiation . This radiation comes in different ways:
by direct use of heat: hot water heaters and solar cookers and solar dryers;
used indirect heat used for another use: solar cooling, solar thermodynamics .
Solar thermodynamics
The THEMIS solar power
In Spain, at the Plataforma Solar de Almería , Stirling engine installed at the focus of a parabolic mirror
The thermodynamic solar is a solar technology that uses solar heat to produce:
is the electricity on the same principle as a conventional power plant (production of high pressure steam which is then turbines ).
either directly mechanical work 6 .
The sun on mechanical devices that convert radiation (heat) solar into mechanical motion that can be used directly or be converted into electricity. The point common to all techniques is the concentration of solar energy through solar concentrators ( heliostats , mirrors , etc.). 7 .
Solar thermal power plants
Main articles: Central solar thermal and solar thermodynamic list .
We talk about solar power or electrosolar.
Stirling engine
The system is no longer in the experimental stage 8 , 9 , 10 : At the ” Plataforma Solar de Almería ‘first installation in 1992 was initially composed cna certification of three units parabolic 7.5 m diameter can collect up to 40 kWt energy using a motor “Stirling SOLO V160″ e cigarette that can generate up to 9 kW focal zone. The project was followed by a unit parabolic 8.5 m , the motor can generate 10 kWe 11 .
Engineering Physics Department of the University of Clermont-Ferrand has developed a prototype Stirling engine solar STHELIO the 12 , 13 .
Solar energy for cooking
Appeared in the year 1970 , solar cooking is to prepare dishes using a cooker or solar oven. Small solar ovens allow cooking temperatures of about wedding rings 150 ° C , the solar dishes can make the same dishes that cook traditional gas or electric.
The use of solar energy for cooking, in addition to being free and abundant in certain geographical areas, can also reduce deforestation in some countries or cooking with wood and coal is the norm. It allows the same time reducing emissions of CO 2 in the atmosphere, for example, about 4 tons of CO 2 per year for an African family cooking with wood 14 .

Cake in a Global Sun Oven solar cooker

Parabolic solar oven Alsol 1.4

Scheffler solar cooker model: 16 m² and 3 kilowatts of rated power.
Click on a thumbnail to enlarge
Photovoltaic solar energy
Map of Solar Radiation in France
The term “photovoltaic” can refer to the physical phenomenon (the photovoltaic effect discovered by Antoine Becquerel in 1839 ), or related technical.
Photovoltaic solar energy is the electricity produced by conversion of part of solar radiation by a photovoltaic cell . Several cells are connected in a photovoltaic module auto insurance quotes . Several modules together to form a solar system in a private or a photovoltaic power plant . The solar system can supply a need in place (in combination with a storage medium) or injected, after conversion to alternating current in an electrical distribution system (storage then not required).
Media and promising, this form of energy is now fairly quantitatively negligible, however, he predicted a great future with the progress that car shipping is expected (the cost should drop sharply in the coming years), its simplicity and versatility: maintenance-free and sustainable, can operate with or without a network, it can meet the need for electrical energy of a house (sensors on the roof) or industry, unlike other forms of solar energy that do as heat.
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Research in France is mostly done by the private sector, but the Scientific and Technical Centre Building (CSTB) and the National Laboratory for Metrology and Testing (ESA) ESA inaugurated in mid-November in Chambery , Certisolis , a laboratory will be both a place of testing and certification according to international standards EN 61215, EN 61646, EN 61730 and in terms of environmental and energy performance of photovoltaic modules. A thirty tests involve the production and electrical safety (flash test or simulator pulsed dielectric tests and voltage pulse or testing of lightning). Testing climate and sunshine feel the scrabble word finder effects of aging of the modules (in climatic chamber with exposure to the solar spectrum). Mechanical tests focus on the resistance of the module and mounting system.
Economics

A laundromat in California powered by solar energy.
Main article: Solar PV .
In the long term, prices for coal , the natural gas and oil increase with the depletion of the resource. The Relevant Life Policy sun provides an inexhaustible source of energy and the European Commission for Renewable Energy provides solar energy will represent a proportion of 20% in renewable energy , they bring to 20% energy and 50% in 2020 in 2040.
Systems of solar power have a proportionate cost almost zero: there is no fuel, only costs (maintenance, security, repair …) that depend very little production. However, it should consider the investment costs, much higher than for technical or other renewable fuels (wind, hydro, …).
The use of thermal sensors used to produce hot water at low cost. After the installation is done, maintenance is very inexpensive and allows for substantial savings in fossil fuel or electricity.
However, for the production of electricity , the cost of installation is important (for solar thermal) or very high (for PV), and these techniques are not yet mature for a generalization. Many countries have therefore set up systems of financial incentives (in the form of tax exemption, grants, or special rates for the purchase of energy produced).
The use of production system of solar energy is also justified in situations where it is very expensive to transport fuels (fossil fuels) or to make a connection to the grid, as for single instruments ( marine beacons , timestamps ) or in remote or sparsely populated. In France, the electrification of many shelters in the mountains and remote villages (in weight loss pills Guyana ) was produced by photovoltaic modules, sometimes coupled hcg diet plan with a generator booster.
Despite his wealth, and because of its heavy investment costs, solar energy is now a very competitive, but particular situations, and develops only through state aid. However, STD Test an increasing number of players think it would be unwise to expect the effects of peak oil production on the price (economic and political) of fossil fuels , or those of any climate change due to their combustion (effect emissions); When these phenomena will occur, it will be too late to react, which justifies a statement in support of this technique has great potential for price reduction, including through an increase in production.
The solar industry in France

This article or section adopts a regional perspective or cultural and should be internationalized .
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A cluster (Tenerrdis) includes chiropractic marketing hundreds of players in the solar industry in France (including CEA and 60 “innovative SMEs”), participating in 43 projects approved with funding of 100 M € 15 , to help France catch up in the solar field. This division works including the upstream sector of the production equipment, materials (including silicon) solar cells, PV panels and electrical systems (6,500 jobs in France in 2010, 15 ). In 2010/2011, Genevieve Fioraso to the pole has prompted the government to meet the particular objectives of the Grenelle Environment Forum, to at least triple the stated goal of 5.4 GW in 2020, while calling large groups to invest in the sector in France and alerting the delays for the second phase of the National Institute of solar energy (funding blocked) while according to Jean-Pierre Vial 15 , communities have played the game . end of 2010, had TENERRDIS – since its inception – more than 40o certified projects research and development , of which 146 supported to the tune of € 142 million (for a total budget of 322 M €). 41 R & D concerned the solar photovoltaic (certified and financed) 16 .
A process Photosil (metallurgical silicon) was supported by the INES, Apollon Solar and FerroAtlántica with a pre-industrial production announced for 2011. French manufacturers of crystalline silicon and applications (ECM Technologies, Vesuvius, Mersen (formerly Carbone Lorraine) and Photowatt Chicago Criminal Attorney Technologies Emix) are known in the world 15 . SolarForce S’Tile and innovative technologies in thin layers. Concentrix (acquired by Soitec ) and Heliotrop develop on the area of photovoltaic concentrator 15 . The first field operational trakers French, comprising eighty units on just over two hectares, made ​​by Concentrix, is in production the town of RIANS, not far from CEA Cadarache, in the Var. His connection to the ERDF will be effective May 20, 2011.
INES and the consortium PV Alliance (Photowatt, EDF ENR and CEA) have developed a project NanoCrystal (190 M €) which is expected to produce cells with high efficiency and cheap (LabFab demonstration pilot plant (25 MW) current), with a PV20 project (supported by DFO Energy). Solar Screen Nexcis and working on their side to CIGS thin films. The process Nice (New Industrial Cell Encapsulation) developed with the INES, Apollon Solar and Vincent Industries. It assembles solar cells under vacuum, seamless (chains being set up in France and Tunisia in 2010) 15 . Projects assembly plants PV panels were worn in 2010 by Tenesol and Photowatt, but Sillia, Auversun, Fonroche, Solarezo, France Watts, Elifrance that rely on suppliers of components and materials such as Micel Films Toray, Arkema, MAP, Saint Gobain, Versaplast, A. Raymond, Air Liquide, Komax, Semco Engineering, Dubuit Machinery, Check Up Solar, IBS, Ardeje 15 …
The downstream industry has seen new business (Nexans, Ogire, Schneider Electric, Radiall, Heliotrop , Exosun Greenercos, Fleet technologies, EHW Research, Multicontact) 15 .
History

The use of solar energy dates back to antiquity. The Greeks, in fact, lit the Olympic flame through a system of mirrors and the sun 17 .
The French Salomon de Caus built in 1615 a solar pump, through the use of air heated by solar radiation .
In 1747, Georges-Louis Buffon’s experiences mirror that concentrates sunlight into a single focal point . It happens to melt a piece of money (the melting point of silver is 1044 ° C ).
In the late 18 th century, thanks to a liquid lens that concentrates the sun’s rays, Antoine Lavoisier built denver injury lawyer a solar oven that reaches temperatures of 1800 ° C .
In the 1780s, HB de Saussure invented a measuring instrument to enable it to study the heating effects of sunlight he called “gravure thermometer”, this instrument uses the greenhouse effect produced by a window placed above an absorber in a box isolated and he created a solar heat website hosting at low temperatures.
The conversion of light into electricity, called photovoltaic effect, was discovered by Antoine Becquerel in 1839 18 but it was not until nearly a century for scientists to deepen and exploit the phenomenon of physics.
In 1875 , Werner von Siemens outlines to the Berlin Academy of Sciences a paper on the photovoltaic effect in semiconductors.
In Cell Phone Accessories 1913 , William Coblentz filed the first patent for a solar cell which unfortunately will never work. In 1916 , Robert Millikan was the first to produce electricity with a solar cell, but during the next forty years, no one will be much progress in solar photovoltaic cells as too inefficient to convert corporate clothing sunlight into energy. The phenomenon is still a discovery anecdotal.
During 1954 , three American researchers (Chapin, Pearson and Prince) develop a photovoltaic cell with high efficiency (9%) and Bell Labs built the first solar panel but it was too expensive to Storage Containers be mass produced. This is the space race that will really advance solar energy solar panel is the only non-nuclear power satellites in energy, more solar energy is a constant source of power for satellites orbit. Indeed, it was in 1958 that on the first launch of a satellite powered by solar energy. The space industry is investing so much money in the development of solar panels. This is the first important use of solar photovoltaic technology.
During the years 1970 and 1980 , efforts are being made ​​to reduce costs so that the PV is also used for terrestrial applications. Solar energy will see a second drive in the first oil crisis in the 1970s. While the price suits brisbane of oil dramatically increases, the solar panels are starting to be used for the first time in the home. Indeed, in 1973 , the first house powered by solar cells is constructed at the University of Delaware and in 1983 , the first car powered by photovoltaic energy travels a distance of 4 000 km in Australia. Since solar panels have developed slowly. For a long time, they were considered as alternative energy sources. Solar energy is again booming as it provides an oil shortage next, there are concerns global warming and energy prices have never been so high. Solar energy is becoming a priority for more and more countries. Solar power plants are under construction worldwide. Companies are also investing. Electricity companies and governments have offered subsidies and discounts to encourage owners to invest in solar energy for their home. Indeed, in 1995, programs for grid-connected photovoltaic roofs were launched in Japan and Germany, becoming widespread since 2001 .
New types of solar panels have been developed; solar thin ( 4 mm thick) and flexible solar paint. The aim is to drastically reduce the cost of solar energy.
Solar energy in the present and future

Is solar energy the future?
Battery chargers, fans, garden lights, water pumps, etc. .. Today, almost everything can run on solar energy. We can now carry in his bag a GPS equipped with a solar charger and solar panels appear on the rooftops. Essential to life on Earth, the sun can make us many other services: heat our homes, power the most remote places.
In the world of power generation projects are emerging almost everywhere, based on an immense potential: “5% of the surface of deserts could produce all the electricity in the norfolk island holidays world” , stated Patrick Jourde and Jean-Claude Muller 19 , researchers at the Atomic Energy Commission and the Alternative Energy (CEA) and CNRS .
There are also private transport, the electric bike to electric cars , to the scooter and electric motorcycle, for powers of 500 W to 45 kilowatts ( 60 hp ) and even electric cars that can be charged with production equipment (in good weather).
The boom in solar objects
There appeared some twenty years the pocket calculator solar. Some solar cells are advantageously replaced batteries , toxic to the environment. Today, shops dedicated to ecology, but also more mainstream brands, offer many payday loan items that run on solar energy torches, garden lights, clock radios, mobile animated, watches … Evidence that solar energy consumers attracted by the “green” image it conveys. Its other advantage is its part nomadic and chargers solar can now supply electricity, wherever you are, a mobile phone, a GPS or laptop. For long-term travelers, there are even backpacks equipped with solar collectors. Some imagine clothing equipped with photovoltaic cells, to directly connect their MP3 player or even mobile electronic cigarette phone.
The breakthrough thermal power plants
Main article: Solar power plant thermodynamics .
The principle of solar thermal power plant is to concentrate the sun’s rays, using parabolic mirrors towards a boiler or tubes containing a heat transfer fluid . The recovered heat is transferred to water. The water turns to steam, which drives t shirt design a turbine coupled to a generator producing electricity. Some states, Spain in mind, rely on the technology rather than on the photovoltaic , whose production cost is higher because the price of silicon photocells.
The Spanish has been since 2009 the most powerful solar thermal of Europe ‘ Andasol ‘, with a capacity of 150 MW . Some 400,000 mirrors, an area of 1.1 million square meters, collect the sun’s energy and supplies electricity to 45,000 homes.
Morocco also has launched the beginning of 2010 (taking advantage of its desert), with an investment of 2 billion euros in building one of the largest concentrating solar power plants in the world to Ouarzazate with a capacity of 500 MW over 3040 hectares 20 . It will be followed by martial arts denver four other plants in concentration that have been programmed in the Moroccan solar plan Desertec . The goal is to install 2,000 MW of 5 sites in the coming years, a power greater than that of a new generation nuclear reactor ( EPR ) 21 .
In the U.S., the company Florida Power & Light announced the opening in late 2010 of a solar power plant of 190,000 mirrors 22 and 75 MW. It is located in Florida on the east coast, north of Palm Beach County and extends over 200 hectares 22 .
Panels on the roof
The photovoltaic panels convert light from the sun into electricity . The years 2000 to 2010, France and Belgium, thanks to tax incentives of the state, individuals were more likely to equip them. In France the producer has the choice between self-consumption and sale of its entire production to EDF since 2002 who is required to purchase electricity cheap auto insurance quotes produced from renewable sources by individuals or communities.
Following an increase higher than expected requests for connection of photovoltaic systems, a moratorium was agreed in December 2010 by the French: “The obligation to conclude an agreement to buy electricity generated by facilities mentioned in three of section 2 of the Decree of December 6, 2000 referred to above shall be suspended for a period of three months to run San Diego Homes For Rent from the entry into force of this Decree. No new application may be filed during the period of suspension ” 23 payday loan , 24 casino , moratorium criticized by stakeholders involved in operations already launched or that the state should fund 25 .
End of 2010, the solar energy captured on rooftops and in solar parks with solar vps hosting cells accounted for 1 025 MW for all of France 26 . By comparison, in 2010, more than 7400 MW PV were sold and connected to Germany (country leader in the photovoltaic field) for a total installed base of 17 320 megawatts.
A new generation of panels, said solar panels hybrid , appears on the market in 2010, producing both electricity and therms, with a photovoltaic efficiency improved by the fact that the panel is cooled by exporting (and rewarding) it has accumulated calories.
Large-scale PV
Main article: Central solar photovoltaic .
The photovoltaic most powerful in the world are currently (2011) those of Sarnia 27 in Canada, Finsterwalde Okhotnykovo in free ipad Germany and Ukraine, each occupying over 300 hectares and with an installed capacity of approximately 80 MWp . It is composed of more than a million photovoltaic panels fixed (in most cases) that can move automatically to the sun.
In France, after the central Chambéry , inaugurated in 2005 , Reunion , in 2006 and the Central Saint-Charles in Perpignan in 2010 ( 10,120 MWh / year , with 80 000 m² of solar panels 28 ), the largest solar power plant PV currently in use is the Losse in (Landes), built by EDF Energies Nouvelles , it has been completed since mid-2011. It includes 300 ha of predominantly fixed panels with a peak power of 67.2 MW 29 , the two e (for power) is of Mees (31 MWp) in the Gironde 30 .
The Swiss has also launched in the race for solar and Germany , the 57,000 panels of Bavaria Solarpark operation since 2005 (10 MWp) and were followed by the central Brandis , 40 MWp in 2009 and Finsterwalde , 80 MWp in 2011.
On October 27, 2009, President Barack engagement rings Obama opened the largest solar power plant in the United States in DeSoto near Miami . Equipped with over 9000 panels, the laser hair removal plant with a capacity of 25 MWp can provide more than 3000 homes 31 .
The draft solar towers
Main article: Solar Tower .
In a solar tower, a large solar collector glass heats the air, which amount to at high speed into the turn, drives the turbines that generate Unlock iPhone the electricity . A first prototype was commissioned in 1982 in Manzanares in Spain is planning to build a solar tower 750 feet high, capable of powering 120,000 homes. The Australian has studied the possibility of building a tower nearly 1,000 feet high, which should provide the equivalent spa covers consumption of 200,000 engagement ring households.
Energy anywhere
Solar lamp post Elinkine , a village in Casamance ( Senegal ).
In the South, where sunlight is often very important, solar can provide rural and urban areas a decentralized energy for lighting, refrigerators, water pumps, telecommunications equipment, etc.. Wire Cart Covers Supported by NGOs , the village electrification projects are underway in many countries of Africa and of South America
Figures

The total solar energy absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year 32 and in 2002 it received more energy in one hour than humanity not used for a year 33 .
In France, 10 m 2 of solar panels annually produce about 1000 kWh of electricity, so that a Denver Divorce Attorney surface of 5 000 km 2 panels (1% of the area) would produce the equivalent of consumption country’s electricity 34 .
The global photovoltaic park in late 2010 represented more than 34 GW , an increase of 70% since 2009 35 , the energy produced is about 40 TWh , or 2.5 / 1,000 of the total electricity electronic cigarettes the world (40 TWh against 16 000 TWh 3 ).